Amid the chaotic atmosphere of the First World War, the harsh policies imposed by the Ottoman Empire in its Syrian provinces led to the systematic targeting of Arab nationalist intellectuals. In 1915 and 1916, particularly during the mass executions carried out on 6 May 1916, in Damascus and Beirut, deep scars were left in the history of Syria and Lebanon. These executions were carried out under the leadership of Cemal Pasha, commander of the Fourth Army and governor of Syria, on charges of “treason” and “separatism.” They specifically targeted leading figures of the Arab Awakening (Nahda) movement.

Historical background

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire faced rising nationalist movements across its diverse territories. In the Arab provinces, particularly in Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine, a cultural and political awakening was underway through the Nahda movement. This movement aimed to strengthen Arab identity through Arabic literature, journalism, and education. However, after the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) came to power in 1908, the Ottoman policy of “Turkification” stirred unrest among the Arab population.

When the First World War began in 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the conflict on the side of Germany against the Allied Powers (Britain, France, and Russia). The war brought severe economic hardship, famine, and conscription, all of which heightened tensions in the Syrian provinces. During this period, some Arab intellectuals formed secret societies demanding reform or independence from Ottoman rule. Organizations such as al-Fatat, al-Ahd, and the Lebanese Reform Society sought autonomy or independence with the support of Britain or France. The Ottoman authorities, however, viewed these activities as treason in a time of war and responded with harsh repression.

In Syria, the architect of these repressive policies was Cemal Pasha, who had been appointed commander of the Fourth Army in 1915. Known as “Haji Pasha,” Cemal Pasha declared martial law across the region and aimed to silence all dissent. That same year, documents left behind by the French consulate in Beirut during their withdrawal fell into the hands of Ottoman officials. These documents included correspondence between some Arab intellectuals and the French authorities. Cemal Pasha used these letters as the main justification for issuing execution orders.

The course of events: the executions of 1915–1916

The year 1915 marked an intensification of Cemal Pasha’s repressive policies in Syria. It was also the year of the genocide of Armenians and Assyrians. Therefore, the massacres carried out by Cemal Pasha in Syria and Lebanon cannot be viewed separately from the broader policies of the Ottoman state at the time.

Documents seized from the French Consulate revealed that numerous intellectuals in Damascus, Beirut, and other parts of Lebanon were engaged in activities deemed hostile to the Ottoman Empire. The documents included allegations that some intellectuals had provided information about Ottoman troop movements to the French or had sought support for independence. Using these documents as justification, Cemal Pasha launched a wide-scale campaign of arrests.

On 21 August 1915, the first mass executions were carried out in Burj Square in Beirut. Eleven individuals, most of them Lebanese, were hanged. Among those executed were journalists, religious figures, and leaders advocating for reform. The event instilled fear across the region and made it painfully clear that the Ottoman authorities showed no tolerance toward dissenters, those demanding freedom, or people of different ethnic and religious identities.

The identities of the executed intellectuals

Those who were executed included prominent figures from the intellectual, political, and religious elites of Syria and Lebanon. Some of them were:

Shukri al-Asali (1868–1916): A politician and physician from Damascus, and a member of the Ottoman Parliament, known for his Arab nationalist views. He was affiliated with the al-Fatat society. His correspondence with the French was the main reason cited for his execution.

Abdulhamid al-Zahrawi (1855–1916): A scholar and journalist from Damascus and a leading figure of the Nahda movement. He was known for his writings demanding reform from the Ottoman government and was associated with the al-Ahd society.

Rafic Rizk Sallum (1883–1916): A Lebanese journalist and writer who contributed to the Nahda movement and published articles opposing Ottoman rule.

Emir Arslan (1868–1916): A Lebanese Druze leader and writer. He was accused of collaborating with the French against the Ottoman authorities.

Petro Pauli (1866–1916): A Maronite cleric and educator from Lebanon, and a member of the Lebanese Reform Society. He was charged with establishing connections with the French.

Salim al-Jaza’iri (1870–1916): A Syrian historian and a significant figure in the Nahda movement, known for advocating reformist ideas against Ottoman rule.

Abdulwahhab al-Inglizi (1878–1916): A merchant from Damascus and a member of al-Fatat, executed for allegedly making contact with the British.

Jamal al-Hamali (1875–1916): A lawyer from Damascus and member of the al-Ahd society, known for his pro-independence activities.

Shafiq al-Muayyad (1865–1916): A politician and Ottoman bureaucrat from Damascus, targeted due to his reformist stance.

These people played critical roles in the intellectual and political life of their time. Most were involved in the Nahda movement, working to strengthen Arab identity through Arabic-language media and education.

6 May 1916: Martyrs’ Day

The peak of the repressive policies came on May 6, 1916, when executions were carried out simultaneously in Marjeh Square in Damascus and Burj Square in Beirut. On that day, a total of 21 individuals were executed, an event that came to be commemorated in Syria and Lebanon as “Martyrs’ Day.” The executions were carried out under the orders of Cemal Pasha, following trials conducted by military courts (Divan-ı Harb), which were brief and lacked transparency.

The trials often denied the accused the right to defend themselves, and the charges were largely based on documents obtained from the French consulate. The executions were held in public spaces and intended to instill fear and deter others. Crowds gathered in the squares of Damascus and Beirut, watching the executions in horror. The event ignited widespread anger against the Ottoman Empire in Arab society and fueled nationalist sentiment.